Biology

A. Manganous sulfate solution for 1000 mL
Dissolve one of the following in 1000 mL of distilled water
480 g MnSO4.4H2O or-
400 g MnSO4.2H2O or-
364 g MnSO4.H2O
B. Alkali-iodide (add azide if necessary) for 1000 mL
Dissolve in 1000 mL of distilled water
500 g NaOH or-            -AND-                135 g NaI or-
700 g KOH                                 150 g KI
Use azide while taking bacterial or nitrite laden samples
Dissolve 10 g NaN3 in 40 ml distilled water.
Add to 1 L of above solution.
C. Sulfuric acid (concentrated)
D. Starch for 100 mL
Dissolve 2 g soluble potato starch in 100 ml hot distilled water, stir.
(NOTE Add starch only to hot water as starch may take a little time to liquefy.)
E. Sodium thiosulfate for 1000 mL
In 1000 mL distilled water add 6.25 g Na2S2O3.5H2O
(NOTE As the solution is unpreserved, so must be freshly prepared.)

Materials
We require Test tubes with known volume or standard Biological Oxygen Demand water sampling bottles, few Beral Pipets, use Burets or preferably 10 mL syringes and Erlenmeyer Flasks

Methodology
In this Winkler Titration method, manganous sulfate was made to react with a potassium hydroxide-potassium iodide compound mixture to give out a white flocculent precipitate of bivalent manganese i.e. manganous hydroxide

MnSO4  2 KOH  Mn(OH)2  K2SO4
This precipitate was then made to react with dissolved oxygen in water to get tetravalent manganese

2 Mn(OH)2  O2  2 MnO(OH)2
Product formed, manganic basic oxide, is a brownish precipitate. Whereas if, a white precipitate comes out it indicates that no oxygen is present. Further, with acidification through sulfuric acid (or sulfamic acid, H3NSO3) the precipitate gets dissolved, forming out manganic sulfate

MnO(OH)2  2 H2SO4  Mn(SO4)  3 H2O
Formed manganic sulfate was made to react with potassium iodide yielding free iodine (I2), which gives out a brownish color. Iodine on the other side also tends to react with starch and bring into being a blue-black color which indicates the presence of iodine. This iodine can be titrated with sodium thiosulfate to give out sodium iodide, which will no further leave the brown color

2 Na2S2O3  I2  Na2S4O6  2 NaI
As a result we measured the amount of thiosulfate needed to eliminate all of the brown color, and helping in determination for total amount of I2 in the sample, and in a roundabout way giving us the amount of O2 present dissolved in

Cystic fibrosis is a secretory disease (including sweat and mucus glands) that is usually inherited. Inherited implies that it is passed on through genes of a parent to their children. To inherit cystic fibrosis, a person gets two faulty genes- each from both parents. The parents usually do not suffer from the disorder themselves. Cystic fibrosis is a multi-system infection, meaning that its infection involves several body organs in the lungs and the digestive system. Cystic fibrosis usually affects the liver, sinuses, lungs, intestines, pancreas and the human reproductive organs (Institute Of Health Sciences, 2009). Mucus refers to the substance which is made as a result of lining of certain body tissues. Usually, mucus is watery and slippery. The purpose of mucus in the body is to keep the linings of some organs moist so as to protect them from becoming dry or getting infected. However, for a person suffering from cystic fibrosis, their mucus usually becomes sticky and thick. This mucus eventually piles up in the lungs, blocking the airways. The building up of the mucus provides a suitable atmosphere for the growth of bacteria. This causes severe and serious infections which might completely damage the lungs (Medicine net, 2009).

Etiology
If ones lungs are healthy, there is normally a constant stream of mucus flowing across the surfaces of lungs and the air passages. The mucus serves to remove bacteria and debris. If one is suffering from cystic fibrosis, the mucus becomes extremely sticky and thick because of an altered water and salt balance in the lungs. Cystic fibrosis is a condition caused by an inherited faulty gene termed as Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR). Cystic fibrosis results when an individual has a pair of the faulty gene inherited from both parents. However, if one has only one cystic fibrosis gene, he or she cannot suffer from the disease but becomes a carrier and will also not be affected by the symptoms of cystic fibrosis. The illustration below describes how cystic fibrosis is inherited (BuPa, 2009).

From the above illustration, when both parents are cystic fibrosis carriers for every pregnancy there is one chance in a total of four of getting a cystic positive child, two out of four chances of getting a cystic carrier child and one in all the four chances of getting a cystic negative child -neither a carrier nor a victim of the disease (BuPa, 2009).
The most common physiological problems caused by Cystic Fibrosis
Since the disease is a multi-system infection, it results to quite a number of physiological problems which include CFTR Gene mutation, Chloridesodium channels, pancreatic problems, infertility, and enzyme. These problems are as discussed below.

CFTR gene mutation
Basically, gene mutation is an irreversible change in DNA sequence which makes up such a gene. Gene mutation occur through two different ways either through inheritance or can be acquired in the course of a persons lifetime. The CFTR gene mutation is an example of the inherited gene mutation case- it is a hereditary mutation (also referred to as germline mutation). There are over one thousand genetic mutations that are associated with varying degrees of the severity of cystic fibrosis disease. Majority among these mutations alter amino acids (the building blocks for proteins) in CFTR protein or else delete small amounts of DNA out of CFTR gene (Lurquin, Omoto, 2004). The most frequent mutation is called Delta F508 and results from the deletion of a single amino acid at 508 point in CFTR protein. This results to an abnormal channel in the CFTR protein. This abnormal channel eventually breaks down after a short while and as such, it cannot reach the cell membrane and transport the chloride ions. The disease forming mutations in CFTR gene changes the production, stability as well as structure of chloride ions. This causes the channel of chloride ions not to function properly thus affecting and destroying the transportation of chloride ions and the movement of water inside and outside the cells (Lurquin, Omoto, 2004).

Chloridesodium channels
Abnormalities of the functioning of the epithelial system in cystic fibrosis are linked to certain defects in the permeability of the cell membrane to sodium andor chloride ions. Recently, a certain class of chloride channels in the epithelial airways cells was reported to be lacking usual sensitivity for phosphorylation, through the camp dependent Kinase protein. This suggests that single genetic defaults in the chloride channels could be resulting to cystic fibrosis (Kakaz  Anthony, 2006).

Infertility
This condition affects the male and the female reproductive systems as a result of the faulty CFTR gene in the body. Mutations in CFTR gene disturb the functioning of chloride channel thus preventing natural flow of the chloride ions as well as water inside and outside the cells. As a result, the cells in male genital region generate mucus which is unusually sticky and thick. In men, this mucus then blocks the tubes carrying sperms from the vas deferens (testes) in a developing unborn male and the condition deteriorates before birth. With no vas deferens, sperms cannot be transferred from testes and part of the semen.  As a result, men having congenital bilateral lack of vas deferens cannot father children (are infertile) save for the use of modern reproductive technologies (Thomas  Schover, 2009). For women on the other hand, the condition results to the production of excessive mucus in the genital organs. This mucus builds up with time and eventually clogs the cervix. Once the cervix is blocked, it becomes impossible for the sperms to flow through the female virginal cannel to the oviduct where fertilization takes place. As a result, it becomes difficult for a woman to become pregnant until the condition is treated (Jacobs, 2007).

Pancreatic and Enzyme problems
The thick and sticky mucus clogs the ducts, tubes and the pancreases. Consequently, digestive enzymes which are responsible for production of the pancreas cannot be able to reach the small intestines. The digestive enzymes assist in the breaking down of food and without them the food is not properly broken down and consequently the small intestines cannot completely absorb proteins and fats. The end results are deficiency of vitamins in the body and malnutrition since the nutrients leave the body unused. In addition, it can result to intestinal gas, bulky stools, swollen bellies due to constipation or general discomfort and pain (Institute of Health Sciences, 2009).

Sinusitis, bronchietasis and pancreatitis
Sinuses refer to air filled gaps behind the nose, eyes and the forehead. They usually produce mucus and aides in keeping the lining of the nose moist. When the sinuses get swollen, they become clogged with mucus and are infected. The swelling of the sinuses has been reported to be as result of the faulty pair of gene present in cystic fibrosis infected people. Bronchietasis is a disease of the lungs whereby the bronchial tubes and the large airways in the lungs become enlarged, stretched out and flabby forming pockets (Davis, 1993). Mucus collects in these pockets causing infections in the lungs. Repeated infections in the lungs due to accumulating mucus create increasing damage to the bronchial tubes and eventually bronchietasis. If not treated, it can cause respiratory failure. The mucus that collects in the lung pockets comes from the excessive production of mucus in the body which is the necessary condition of cystic fibrosis. Pancreatitis refers to the painful inflammation in the pancreases. This painful inflammation of the pancreases is caused by a mal functioning pancreas (Davis, 1993).

Other problems which are related to cystic fibrosis include intestinal blockage episodes in newborns, nasal polyps (growth in the nose caused by the swelling of the sinuses) and clubbing (the widening and rounding of finger tips and toes). Clubbing develops because the lungs cannot function properly and hence they are not able to purify enough blood and consequently, oxygen in the blood stream is not sufficient. Cystic fibrosis also causes Pneumothorax, which is the collapsed lung, and Rectal Prolpse. Rectal prolapsed is frequent coughing and difficulties in passing stool. This condition causes the rectal tissue in the body to pop out from the rectum (Davis, 1993).

The symptoms of cystic fibrosis
The signs and symptoms usually vary over time and from one person to another. Some people will develop serious digestive and lung problems while others suffer from mild illness that does not show up till they become adolescents or even when they are adults. Sometimes, a person suffering from cystic fibrosis will show mild symptoms which begin to become more severe as the disease worsens (Lewis, 1993).
For instance, in most people, the functioning of the lungs begins to decline at early childhood and with time the lungs become permanently damaged resulting to serious problems in breathing. Consequently, breathing problems advance to respiratory failure which is the most common cause of deaths among people suffering from cystic fibrosis. If someone has cystic fibrosis, the enzymes that are produced by the pancreas do not reach the gut since the flow is clogged. Without the digestive enzymes, the patient cannot get enough nutrients especially fats and proteins. Such a person shows the signs of malnutrition and gross loss of weight even when they are observing proper and hygienic feeding manners. Again, the stool of such people contains excess fats which make it to appear oily, sticky and hard to flush away. The basic symptoms of the disease are as a result of thick and sticky mucus. The most frequent signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis include frequent coughing which causes thick sputum and phlem as well as frequent bouts of the bronchitis that can lead to inflammation or permanent damage to the lungs (Lewis, 1993).

Cystic fibrosis causes salty tasting skin which is as a result of dehydration Dehydration is caused by the failure of the intestines to absorb enough water. Further, it causes unending diarrhea, infertility, huge appetite accompanied by poor growth and weight gain- this is referred to as failure to thrive.  A person suffering from cystic fibrosis should exhibit at least more than fifty percent of the symptoms mentioned above at the same time or on recurring and consecutive basis since other disorders might also result to several of the signs and symptoms mentioned above (Lewis, 1993).

The diagnosis of cystic fibrosis
To diagnose cystic fibrosis, the doctor first obtains a detailed family and medical history of the patient and then conducts a thorough objective examination. To confirm the diagnosis, the doctor also performs a number of laboratory tests, for the purposes of accuracy. The most accurate test for diagnosing cystic fibrosis is the sweat test. The sweat test is used to measure the level of salt in the sweat. To conduct this test, doctors usually rub some little amount of a testing chemical substance called Pilocarpine on the arm or the leg of the patient. Next, they attach an electrode on that spot. The electrode is used to provide an electric mild current which produces sweat (this could cause a feeling of intense warmth or tingling depending on the patient). After that, the doctors cover that area using a filter paper or gauze pad and wrap up with plastic. They leave the test to rest for thirty or forty minutes and then remove the plastic so that the sweat collected on the filter paper or gauze pad can be taken for analyzing. To provide accurate diagnosis, the test is usually done twice. High levels of salt in the body indicate the presence of cystic fibrosis (Jacobs, 2007).

However, there are also other tests which can be used to diagnose the disease. Such include blood tests to investigate the presence of the abnormal CFTR gene or any other blood test indicative of cystic fibrosis. Also a chest x ray which takes the picture of patients lungs to test whether there is scarring resulting from lung inflammation or a sinus x ray to test for the presence of sinusitis in the patient. Finally the sputum test is also used by doctors to test the bacteria growing in the sputum (Lewis, 1993).

Other tests used to diagnose cystic fibrosis are done for the pregnant women to test the fetus in the womb. For the pregnant women, the prenatal genetic testing will normally find out whether the developing baby is cystic fibrosis positive. Such tests include the Amniocentesis. For this test, the doctor will insert a hollow sterilized needle through the abdominal wall into the uterus and obtains cells from amniotic fluid. This fluid is then tested to find out if the pair CFTR genes of the fetus are normal. The final test done on the fetus is called the chorionic villus biopsy where the doctors use ultrasound that guides a thin tube via the virginal cannel and the cervix and into the uterus to remove small pieces of placenta for biopsy. The placental cells are then tested for cystic fibrosis (Andrews, 2001)

Treatments for the clogged mucus (lungs, sinuses, human reproductive organs)
Treatment for cystic fibrosis lung problems includes antibiotics for airways infections, physical therapy for the chest and exercises. Antibiotics are the principal treatment for cystic fibrosis serous cases. The choice of the antibiotics administered depends on seriousness of the condition, the level of bacterial strains involved and the patients history of antibiotic use. The antibiotics can be oral, inhaled or intravenous. For cystic fibrosis PCT (physical chest therapy), the back and chest are pounded repeatedly so as to dislodge mucus from the lungs and facilitate coughing up the accumulated mucus (Andrews, 2001). Cystic fibrosis CPT ought to be done three to four times on a daily basis. CPT is as well frequently called postural drainage. This is because it involves lying or sitting on ones stomach with the head down. This permits gravity to aid in draining mucus from the lungs. Since CPT is difficult and uncomfortable, a number of devices have been invented recently that are less tasking to operate. These devices include the electronic chest clapper (mechanical percussor), PEP (positive expiratory pressure) which creates vibrations for breaking mucus loose in the airways, and an inflatable therapy vest which utilizes high frequency waves of the air to force the mucus outside the lungs. PCT also uses the flutter device. This is a small device which is hand-held and it is used by breathing through it, an action which generates a wave of vibrations for dislodging mucus.  The final method for treating lung problems of cystic fibrosis involves aerobic exercises. Aerobic exercise helps in loosening the thick mucus, encouraging coughing to clear out the mucus and generally improving the physical condition (Andrews, 2001).

Treating the digestive system problems (the intestines, pancreases and live)
Nutritional therapy is important for improving growth and development as well as exercise, strength and tolerance. It may also make a cystic positive individual to become strong enough and develop immunity against the lung problems. This therapy involves high calorie diets and well balanced low fat- high protein content foods. Doctors usually recommend oral pancreatic enzymes for the facilitation of the digestion of proteins and fats and the absorption of adequate vitamins. The oral enzymes are administered as capsules which are taken before meals. Vitamin supplements of vitamins K, A, E and D are also prescribed by doctors to replace fat-soluble vitamins that the intestines are not able to absorb. Finally, the use of feeding tubes, the T- tubes that adds calories during the night is a probable treatment for cystic fibrosis. The tube is usually paced on ones stomach and a bottle containing nutritional solution is attached at the entrance of the T-tube (Davis, 1993).

Approximately thirty thousand people living in the United States of America have cystic fibrosis. Cystic fibrosis affects both the males and the females regardless of ethnic and racial backgrounds. However, the disease is more prevalent among the Caucasians and less common amongst the African Americans. Cystic fibrosis is one among the major inherited conditions among the Americans. Statistics show that one out of every three thousand babies conceived in the US, suffers from cystic fibrosis. Furthermore, approximately twelve million Americans are living carriers of the abnormal CFTR and ninety percent of them do not know that they have the faulty gene. Cystic fibrosis is therefore among the major threats to human beings and more attention to prevent and cure the condition is not only necessary but also urgent.

The designated web page is the official National Cancer Institutes page on Cancer, including statistics from the American Cancer Society on cancer incidence.
I was startled to realize that the commonest types of cancer were types that I had not previously heard of, like non melanoma skin cancer. I was really interested to read more about this cancer that represents half of all cancers diagnosed in the USA. Fortunately, this is a treatable type that results in less than 1000 deaths in over 100000 affected.

The most frequent cancer types are in order of appearance, apart from non melanoma skin cancer lung cancer (including bronchus), breast, prostate, colorectal, bladder, melanoma skin cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, kidney, leukemia, endometrial, pancreatic and last thyroid cancer.

A very interesting observation had to do with the relatively low appearance of male breast cancer, a fact attributed to the effect female hormones have on breast cancer (breast cancer is hormone-dependent). However, when researching deeply one finds that male breast cancer results in relatively more deaths than female ones. I couldnt help but wonder for this phenomenon, and I realized that male breast cancer happens at a much older age, when predisposing factors have already settled in (obesity is one of them). Moreover, male patients report to their physician much later, when the cancer has already progressed in stage (see table reprinted from Fentiman).

Table 1 TNM stage at presentation of male breast cancer (Fentiman 597)

One realizes immediately that thrombophlebitis is a blood clotting disease that occurs after long periods of staying still or from other predisposing conditions. The worst thing that can happen after thrombophlebitis has settled would be to have a blood clot travel in the heart or the lungs causing embolism.
When searching more carefully, we realize that thrombophlebitis can also be the result of a type of cancer, particularly pancreatic cancer, which causes the blood to clot more easily due to the production of coagulation factors. It then can be manifestated as migratory thrombophlebitis (Thayalasekaran) (positive Trousseau sign) and even be the first sign of disease leading to the cancer diagnosis. A lot of risk factors apart from cancer predispose to this condition, such as pregnancy, pace makers, catheterization, hormone replacement therapy or genetic factors (Appleby).

Treatment is with medications, but a lot of supporting prevention measures can help aid the prognosis of the disease such as support stockings, filters in major veins but most of all self care measures such as elevation daily, heat on superficial clots and over the counter drugs

Writing is a field that is as broad as it is complicated, and to complicate matters more, scientific writing even has specific demands that make writing even more complex.  Initially, it is best to consider the major parts of a scientific essay, regardless of the field that one is writing on.  These major parts are the title page, the abstract, the introduction, the review of literature, the methodology, the results, the discussion, the conclusion, and the literature cited.  (Cordova)  The title page is where the title of the paper is shown, to include details such as the name of the researcher, the college or university where the researcher is at, as well as other details like sub-titles or study rationales.  The abstract is a summary of the study, with the primary emphasis on results and conclusions. (Cordova)  The introduction is where the researcher should express the study problem or the thesis of the research, the hypothesis, the objectives of the research, the significance and limitations of the research.  This has to be followed with the review of literature which is the section where the researcher discusses previously published papers, journals, or researches related to, are the basis for, or influence the study at hand.  Then, when this is complete, the researcher should explain all the methods and processes involved in conducting the study in the research methodology, after which, all the results have to be stated to include tables, illustrations, computations and the like.  After presenting the results, the researcher should proceed to discuss the significance of these results in relation to the study problem, and finally, a conclusion should be made based on the hypothesis.  These basic parts of the scientific research should also be considered in writing a simple essay or journal.  The format may be different, because heading would no longer be necessary, but the sequence of sections has to follow the scientific method.  It has to be remembered that when writing a scientific paper, the results, whether negative or positive, (CUL) have to be included, because these results are the reason for the conduction or the research or the writing of the paper. 

The conclusion, which is often the problem, should also not just be a simple re-stating of the thesis rather, it should relate the thesis to all the other sections of the paper such as the results and the methodology. 
   
With the important sections of the scientific paper now out of the way, it is important to know how to choose a topic.  The very first consideration in choosing a research topic is feasibility, which is determined by how concise and how narrow the research topic is.  For instance, a researcher will not do research on the effects of pollution on the propagation of trees.  This topic needs to be narrowed down and made more concise. 

This is done by introducing more specific variables, so with these variables the topic would more likely become, the negative effects of air pollution from smoke belchers on the propagation of eucalyptus trees in southern Australian highways.  Here now, the topic has become more specific and easier to research because it has more direction and more variables to consider.  In perusing or analyzing a research question, certain elements need to be considered these are time, science involved, and significance.  Hence, if the question is, What are the effects of blue coloured algae on the growth of kelp, the question may be broken down as follows  where does kelp grow  In what particular annual season do they grow  Where is blue algae found  What season do they grow in abundance  What filed of science is involved here (Marine biologybotany)  What effects will the research have on the community at large and what will the results do to the existing body of knowledge on algae and kelp
   
When the analysis of the research question or problem is done, the next step is to do the actual research.  However, where and how does one start doing the research  Initially, the researcher has to do what is called synthesis reading or the perusal of various other researches and studies related to or having and impact on the research at hand.  In determining which of these information sources should be used in the context of relevance and significance to the research topic, a few things have to be considered first, the author, then the date of publication, and finally, the content of the source.  The author has to be an authority in the field being researched, the date should be within the period in which the research at hand is being conducted or the paper is being written, and the content has to support or complement the research problem or thesis being researched.  Then, one has to consider the types of sources being used, (KYVL) for this, a helpful matrix is one obtained from the KY Virtual Library which is pasted here as follows

The immune system functions as a defence against opportunistic microbes. It as well necessitates the capability of detecting between self and non-self molecules to make sure that an immune response is not raised against the organisms own tissues. This discrimination is partly realized by the identification of a pathogens chemical motifs by the host receptors. As a result, latent, potential, or probable pathogens have tailored various ways to overcome the immune systems of the host, while the host responds with a novel defence (Grennan 2006, p. 810). PAMPs or pathogen associated molecular patterns are molecules associated with groups of pathogens, which are identified by cells of innate immune system. These molecules can as well be referred to as minute molecular motifs conserved in a class of microbes. Pathogen associated molecular patterns are recognized by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) as well as other pattern recognition receptors referred to as pathogen recognition receptors(PRRs) in both animals and plants (Ausubel 2005, p. 975).

These receptors activate both the innate and acquired immune responses and thus protect the organism from infections, through recognition of some conserved non-self molecules. An endotoxin found on the cell wall of a bacterium (Lipopolysaccharide) is considered to be prototypical PAMP and is specifically identified by Toll-like receptor 4, an innate immune system recognition receptor. Apart from lipopolysaccharides, other PAMPs comprise of lipoteichoic acid, from gram positive bacteria, bacterial flagellin, and nucleic acid variants usually associated with viruses, such as double stranded RNA (dsRNA). Though the word PAMP is relatively novel, the idea that molecules resulting from microbes ought to be distinguished by receptors from multicellular organisms has been held for a number of decades, and references to an endotoxin receptor are available in much of the older literature (Ausubel 2005, p. 977).
Over the years, the term PAMP has been under criticism by some immunologists on the basis that a large number of microbes, not only pathogens, express the molecules detected. Therefore the term MAMP (microbe associated molecular pattern) has been suggested. A virulence signal which is able to bind to a pathogen receptor in combination with a MAMP has been suggested as one way to constitute a PAMP. In plant immunology, the terms PAMP and MAMP are often treated interchangeably, considering them as the very first step in plant immunity (Ausubel 2005, p. 979).
Mechanism of Immune Recognition
Immune recognition is a unique mechanism and is mediated between products encoded in dissimilar genomes. Besides, the selective advantage imposed through immune recognition on the host genome normally implies a selective disadvantage to the pathogen genome. This conflict of interests directs evolution of non specific immunity toward identification of invariant molecular components of the infectious agents (Janeway 1989, p.6). Molecular structures which are imperative for microbes survival are never subject to variability in the sense that mutations upsetting these structures are mortal, lethal, and deadly for microbes. Molecular structure conservation means that they are shared by groups of pathogens. For instance, the generic structure of lipopolysaccharide is shared by the entire class of gram negative bacteria (Janeway 1989, p.6).

A receptor which would identify the conserved lipid A of lipopolysaccharide would therefore be capable of detecting the presence of any gram negative bacteria. This example exemplifies another characteristic of innate immune recognition, where the targets of recognition mechanism represent molecular patterns called pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), rather than other particular structures (Janeway 1989, p.10). Host organisms have developed receptors which can specifically identify or recognize pathogen associated molecular patterns that include both pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and Toll-like receptors (TLRs). This evolutionary strategy of host organisms not only prevents the generation of microbial escape mutants, but permits a limited number of germline encoded receptors to identify a great array of molecular structures linked to pathogens as well. Additionally, it ought to be emphasized that PAMPs recognition by Toll-like receptors and PRRs not only permits the adaptive immune response to discriminate between non-self and self, but also between pathogen associated non-self and innocuous non-self (Janeway 1989, p.10).

The Roles of TLRs in Innate and Acquired Immune Response
The defence of the host organism against the invading microbial pathogens is induced by the immune system that consists of two components acquired immunity and innate immunity. Both components recognize the microbial pathogens as non-self and hence trigger the immune system to eradicate them. Today, both innate and acquired components of immune system have been characterized independently and the major research interest in immunology has been restricted to acquired immunity. In this immunity, T and B lymphocytes use antigen receptors, such as T-cell receptors and immunoglobulins to recognize non-self (Takeda and Akira 2005, p. 1). The mechanisms through which these antigen receptors identify foreign antigens have been extensively analyzed and the main mechanisms like clonality, memory, and diversity have been well characterized. However, these receptors exist only in vertebrates and according, the mechanism for non-self recognition in less advanced organisms is not fully understood. In addition, the mammalian innate immune system has not been well researched on. Consequently, innate immune cells of mammals, such as dendritic cells and macrophages are known to be activated by microbial components like lipopolysaccharide from gram negative, a receptor liable for recognition remains unknown (Takeda and Akira 2005, p. 1).

Toll-like receptors are germline encoded type 1 transmembrane receptors that are expressed on various cell types comprising dendritic cells and macrophages. They function as pattern recognition receptors, activating innate immunity by recognizing PAMPs that are unique to microbes and imperative for their survival (Carpenter and ONeill 2007, p.1891). Therefore, TLRs provide both instantaneous protective responses against pathogens as well as the acquired response by stimulation of dendritic cells recruitment and maturations (Muzio et al 2000, p. 453). Toll-like receptor triggering leads to nuclear factor kappa B-mediated activation of inflammatory genes. More than ten TLRs have been demonstrated and described in humans and agonists have been defined for nine of them.  Toll-like receptors can function as heterodimers or homodimers, mounting the repertoire of specificities. TLR1, TLR2, and TLR6 are activated by any microbial product as well as peptidoglycan, TLR3 by double stranded RNA (dsRNA), TLR4 by LPS, TLR5 by flagellin, imidazoquinolines triggers both TLR7 and TLR8, and TLR9 is activated by CpG DNA (Campos et al 2001, p. 419).

TLRs Recognition of Microorganisms
Toll-like receptors being membrane bound molecules recognize microbial products within or on the surface of extracellular compartments of cells. Thus, intracellular recognition of invading microbial pathogens seems to involve a TLR independent system. Recent evidence shows that nucleotide binding oligomerization domain (NOD) family of proteins plays a substantial function in the recognition of pathogenic microbes. It has previously been indicated that TLR2 is capable of recognizing peptidoglycan (Takeuchi et al 1999, p. 443). However, peptidoglycan (PGN) contains a thick layer which is made up of overlapping lattice of 2 sugars that are cross linked by bridges of amino acids, and thus the exact structure of PGN which is recognized by TLR2 remains unknown. Nucleotide binding oligomerization was originally recognized as a molecule which is related to apotosis regulator, Apaf-1. It encompasses a caspase recruitment domain (CARD), a C-terminal domain, and a NOD domain.

Recent researches by a number of scientists have illustrated that over expression of NOD1 enables 293 cells to respond to peptidoglycan preparation (Girardin 2003, p. 1584). Therefore, NOD1 may play an essential role in sensing intracellular gram negative bacterial infections. Though, TLR2 has been reported to identify peptidoglycan, it is probable that TLR2 recognizes lipopeptide or lipoprotein contaminants trapped in the layers of PGN mesh. The viral identification is as well mediated by TLR dependent and independent mechanisms. TLR3 mediated recognition of dsRNA or viruses leads to TRIF dependent activation of interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and nuclear factor kappa B. However, dsRNA or viruses are recognized in a TLR3 independent manner, as the impairment of responsiveness to dsRNA or viruses in TLR3 scarcity is only partial. RIG-1 is recognized as a molecule which is responsible for recognition of viruses and mediates 1RF-3 activation (Figure 1).

Figure 1 TLR Dependent  Independent Recognition of Microbial Constituents
(Yoneyama 2004 730)
TLRs and Phagocytosis
The process of phagocytosis is an essential step for defence of the host against microbial invaders, as it activates both degradation of pathogens and resultant presentation of pathogen derived peptide antigen. Recognition of pathogens by Toll-like receptors results in expression of genes, such as co-stimulatory molecules and inflammatory cytokines.  Phagocytosis mediated antigen when presented together with Toll-like receptor dependent gene expression of co-stimulatory molecule and inflammatory cytokines, instruct development of antigen-specific adaptive or acquired immunity (Figure 2). Thus, it is of great interest to characterize the correlation between TLRs and phagocytosis process. For instance, in absence of MyD88 (a common adaptor in TLR signalling) or TLR2TLR4, phagocytosis of bacteria comprising Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli has been shown to be impaired because of impaired phagosome maturation. Several studies indicate that Toll-like receptor-mediated MyD88 dependent activation of p38 is needed for maturation of phagosome.

Figure 2 Adaptive  Innate Immunity
(Takeda  Akika 2000 8)
TLR Signalling Pathways
TLRs stimulation by microbial components or products triggers expression of a number of genes which are involved in the hosts immune responses (Takeuchi et al 2000, p. 113). The molecular mechanisms through which Toll-like receptors elicit gene expression are today being elucidated by analyses of TLR mediated signalling pathways. Microbial identification of TLRs assists dimerization of TLRs. Toll-like receptor 2 is shown to form a heterophilic dimer with either TLR1 or TLR6, but in other usual cases TLRS are alleged to form homodimers. TLRs dimerization triggers activation of signalling pathways that emanate from a cytoplasmic Toll Interleukin-1 Receptor domain (TIR). A TIR domain containing adaptor MyD88, was shown to be important for stimulation of inflammatory cytokines, such as Tumour necrosis facto-alpha (TNF-) and interleukin 12 (IL-12) through all Toll-like receptors (Takeuchi et al 2000, p. 113). However, specific TLRs activation results in slightly dissimilar patterns of gene expression profiles. For instance, activation of Toll-like receptor-3 and 4 signalling pathways leads to induction of type 1 interferons, but activation of TLR2 and TLR5 mediated pathways does not (Doyle 2002, p. 251). TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 signalling pathways as well results in induction of type 1 interferons by mechanism distinct from TLR3 or 4 mediated induction. Therefore, its crystalline clear that Toll-like receptors activation leads to expression of several genes that are later involved in the immune response of the host (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Toll-like Receptor Signalling Pathways
(Hemmi et al 20033059 Beutler 2004 259)
Interaction between TLRs and Dendritic cells (DCs)

Dendritic cells express a collection of PRRs on the surface, which can specifically interact with pathogen associated molecular patterns, including mannose receptors, Toll-like receptors, and c-type lectins. Dissimilar DCs subsets could express different TLRs. For instance, mouse spleen CD8 DCs are indicated to express Toll-like-2, 3, 4, and 9 and encompass a greater Ag presentation ability than CD8- which express TLR-2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9 (Liu 2006, p.214 ). It has been discovered that DCs utilize a number of TLRs in detecting several characteristics of a pathogen at the same time and transmit the information regarding the nature of the microbial pathogens (danger signals) to direct an immune response tailored to the threat. Therefore, Toll-like receptor-induced signals could serve as one of the mechanisms of self or non-self discrimination (Figure 4). Triggering of distinct TLRs on DCs can induce dissimilar cytokine profiles leading to specific activation status of dendritic cells. For instance, TLR-associated molecule MyD88 signals are able to activate downstream TRAF6 stimulation, and this is followed by activation of nucleic factor kappa B (Liu 2006, p. 214). This may perhaps result in production of different sets of cytokines and render DCs with ability to promote generation of Th1, Th2 plus other T-helper cell subsets as well as cytotoxic T cells.

Figure 4 TLRs in Control of Self  Non-self Ag Presentation by DCs
(Liu 2006 215)

The major role of Toll-like receptors in the immune system is recognition of pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The result of this pathogenic recognition is the killing and subsequent elimination of the pathogens by the acute inflammatory response as well as the presentation of antigens to adaptive immune system cells (Basset 2003, p. 21). Therefore, TLRs is very substantial in both components of immune system (innate immunity and acquired or adaptive immunity).

This paper tackles the nature of the rare genetic disease known as Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita, or SDE. Its genetic and molecular basis is also discussed together with the mechanism that explains how a mutation in the COL2A1 gene leads to SDE.  The symptoms are also described as well as the current diagnostic and treatment methods. The paper ends with a list of various activities that a patient should avoid in order to facilitate recovery.

Introduction
Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is a rare disorder characterized by abnormal bone tissue growth (dysplasia) which affects the bones of the spine (spondylo-) as well as the ends of long bones (epiphyseal), and that it is inherited and present at birth (congenita). It is sometimes referred to as SED congenital, SEDC, Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, congenital type or Spindyloepiphyseal Dysplasia, Congenital (What is Spondyloepiphyseal, 2010).

Children and adults with SED usually have a number of skeletal abnormalities, exhibit dwarfism, or having a short stature, and occasionally have trouble seeing and hearing. The incidence of SED is unknown though so far, there have been 175 cases reported in scientific and medical literature (Spondyloepiphyseal, 2010).

Genetic and Molecular Basis
Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenital is an inherited disorder which results from mutations in the COL2A1 gene, or collagen type II, alpha1 gene, which is responsible for the synthesis of the pro-alpha1 (II) chain of Type II collagen. The role of Type II collagen in the reinforcement of the structure and strength of the bodys connective tissues during the early stages of development cannot be emphasized too heavily. Connective tissues support the bones and joints, muscles, organs, and skin. Most of type II collagen is present in cartilage, which has a key role in early bone development (COL2A1, 2010). Therefore, if the COL2A1 gene mutates, proper development of the bones and other connective tissues is impossible (Spondyloepiphyseal, 2010).

Type II collagen also forms part of the vitreous humor of the eye, the clear gel of the inner ear and that of the central portion of the intervertebral (IV) discs, or the nucleus pulposus. Thus problems with this collagen type may result in partial loss of vision and hearing as well as abnormal curvatures of the spine (COL2A1, 2010).
The more than 20 mutations found in the COL2A1, which indirectly cause SED, may result from the replacement of the amino acid glycine with a different amino acid at various places in the pro-alpha1 (II) chain. The resulting collagen chain is an abnormally shorter version of the original one, not to mention it causes SED (COL2A1, 2010).

Symptoms of the Disorder
Generally, children and adults with Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenital are generally short in stature from birth, with short limbs and an unusually short trunk and neck, making three to four feet the maximum height among adults with SED (Spondyloepiphyseal, 2010).
Other symptoms involving the bones include the presence of kyphoscoliosis, lordosis, platyspondyly, coxa vara, a barrel-shaped chest, clubfoot, arthritis and reduced joint mobility even in childhood, flattened cheekbones, malar hypoplasia, cleft palate upon birth, narrow IV disc spaces, and a significant delay in the mineralization of the epiphyses, (Symptoms, 2010).
Symptoms involving the other tissues include muscle weakness, high myopia, other eye problems and hearing problems (Symptoms, 2010)

Current Diagnostic Methods
Diagnostic methods for Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita generally involve a variety of methods and techniques including laboratory and histologic studies, imaging studies, and prenatal testing. All of these methods require differential diagnoses with similar diseases such as Morquio disease, achondroplasia, diastrophic dysplasia, Kniest disease, Perthes disease and Metatrophic dwarfism (Wheeless, 2008).
For laboratory and histologic studies, the main indications of SDE include the presence of metachromatic inclusions in peripheral lymphocytes, microcystic areas of the proliferative zone, and vacuolated chondrocytes of the resting zone that contain PAS-positive cytoplasmic inclusions (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Differential, 2008).

Radiographic imaging studies in patients with SED congenital will confirm the presence of a marked delay in the ossification of the epiphyses, varying degrees of platyspondyly, a steep anterior base of the skull, short and small iliac crests, short and broad tubular bones and many others. Other imaging techniques used are MRI, hip arthrography and CT scan (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Differential, 2008).
Prenatal testing is also available (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Differential, 2008).

Treatment Methods
Treatment methods for Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenital involve a facilitated combination of medical care, surgical care, safety precautions and prevention. However, one very important aspect of SED treatment is the full cooperation of the family.

Proper medical care for people diagnosed with SED consists of regular visits to the ophthalmologist, neurologist, and pulmonologist. A pediatrician for the kids and a geneticist for those who can afford will also prove to be very helpful (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Treatment, 2008).
Surgical care involves various techniques such as using braces, video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery, osteotomy, and many others (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Treatment, 2008).

However, what makes a successful follow-up to a treatment is the determination the patient should have in avoiding activities that could possibly aggravate SED such as competitive sports, bicycling, aerobics, dancing, rowing, swimming, spinning, and water jogging (Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia Treatment, 2008).

Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenita is a destructive mix of its being genetic in origin and its being congenital. This fact makes the disease an extremely challenging even for the best methods of treatment. Diseases with origins in the cell, tissue or organs, and those that are acquired are relatively easier to treat unlike those with molecular and genetic bases especially those which are congenital. Nevertheless the advancement of medical science assures us that the conditions of patients suffering from SDE can be alleviated with early and correct diagnosis, regular consultations with the doctor, intelligent choices of treatment as well as the full cooperation of the family of the patient and the patient himself.

Abstract
All animals belong to the phylum animalia and they share basic characteristics which differentiate them from other organisms in the phyla such as plantae, monera and prototista.  Some of these characteristics include the mode of feeding which is heterotrophic (depend on other animals, plants and algae as a source of food). Animals have a multicellular cell organization with their cells having only a cell membrane but lacking a cell wall. The third feature of all animals is that they are able to move or they have a locomotory capability. Sexual reproduction is prevalent in most animals with a few exceptions like hydra which can reproduce asexually. Lastly, all the animals show a distinctive feature and patterns showing their embryonic development

General Features of Animals
Phylogenetic studies support that all animals have a single ancestral origin. Sponges are believed to have originated from a choananoflagellate, a type of protist. The evolution of all the animals is believed to have started from sponges. Although all the animals share several features, distinguishing features exist which enable taxonomists in the process of classification.
   
Heterotrophic nutrition in animals differentiates them from autotrophic algae and plants which synthesize organic compounds from inorganic molecules for energy production and life sustenance. Heterotrophes include carnivores such as lions, wolves, cheetahs and leopards herbivores such as giraffes, goats, elephants and zebras and omnivores such as man. Other animals like hyenas, vultures and earthworms which feed on dead organisms are generally referred to as detrivores. Heterotrophic nutrition shared among all the animals including man, giraffes, goats, lions, wolves, cheetahs and leopards is known as heterotrophism.
   
All animals have a multicellular body organization with their cells differentiating into specialized types during development each type performing a specific task. The brittlestar has highly specialized multicellular body organization with the arms serving as locomotory structures and grasping of the prey. The arms are also specialized in sensory functions. Although higher plants are multicellular, animals have the most complex multicellular organization with highly developed sensory and excretory systems. Heterotrophic organisms like protozoa were initially classified as small animals but they were later grouped under the phylum Protista since they were unicellular.
   
Animal cells lack a rigid cell wall which is mostly found in plants and bacteria. As a result, animal cells are flexible and can move easily.  For example, the cancer cells which metastasize to other parts of the body do so because they are flexible. The lack of cell walls in animal cells ensures that there is significant cellular communication through membrane receptors and intercellular junctions. Animal cells such as erythrocytes are involved in the transport of oxygen all over the body and can penetrate into capillaries. This flexibility is only achieved because of the lack of a cell wall.
   
Animals such as butterflies can fly actively using their wings for locomotion. The ability to move is linked to the flexibility and the highly developed nervous and muscular systems. Humans can support themselves and move due to the highly developed skeletal and muscular system. Snakes and fish which belonging to the class reptilia and pisces respectively utilize their muscles or myotomes to move.
   
The diversity in terms of forms and habitats is observed in animals. There are several forms of animals which are classified into two categories vertebrates and invertebrates. The invertebrates which include millipedes dont have a backbone and comprise up to 99 percent of all animals on earth. Animals also have diverse habitats for example the jellyfish which belong to phylum of cnidaria live in the sea. Animal phyla like chordata, mollusca and arthropoda are very successful.
   
Animals reproduce sexually and exhibit a typical embryonic pattern of development. Usually, a zygote undergoes mitosis to form a morula. The morula will develop to a blastula then to a gastrula which determines the diversity of all animals. The gastrula develops into a whole organism with complex tissues, group of cells specialized in performing specific functions. The muscle tissues support all the movement requirements of animals. Other tissues include the nervous and blood tissue which perform the signal conductance and transport in the body respectively. These general features of animals show how far different they are from other phyla of organisms.

In his book, Schnell (2002) describes the Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula as the epitome of a carnivorous plant. Natively found in North Carolina, Schnell (2002) further continues to say that, in addition to its odd beauty, its adaptation and carnivorous functions are amazing. A truly remarkable plant that even Charles
Darwin is often quoted to having called the Venus flytrap as the most wonderful plant in the world.

A typical Venus flytrap is about five inches tall. It is mainly found in nitrogen poor environment. It tolerates fire well and depends on periodic burning to curb competition The leaves of this plant have two regions a broad typical leaf-like region, called the leaf- base that has the capability of carrying photosynthesis. This part grows out of the ground. The second part is the trapping mechanism called the lamina or leaf blade. The leaf has two lobes that are hinged by the midrib. Each lobe has two to five trigger hairs and the edge of the trap is lined with finger-like cilia that normally tie up once the trap closes. When an insect crawls into the trap and touches the hair, the trap closes over it. If the insect struggles or moves, the trap becomes tighter. Once the trap is fully closed, enzymes are released to digest the insect .The nutrients are then absorbed into the pads (Schnell, 2002).

The modifications of the plant that make it adapt to its environment include its leaves that are modified into a trap enabling the plant to capture and digest insects. This helps to provide nitrogen to the plant, which lacks in the soil where the Venus flytrap grows. In addition, the plant produces a delicious sweet smelling sap and attractive colors in the traps to be able to attract more insects. This plant also exhibits the fastest movements in the plant kingdom, enabling it to trap its prey (Biskup, 2007).

Viruses belong to the groups of microbes or microorganisms. They were discovered far lately from other microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and protozoa due to its smaller size. It also differs in terms of internal structure and physiological processes. Most viruses also are harmful unlike other bacteria and fungi which can be good and useful.

Prions vs. Viruses and Other Microbial Organisms
It is also known as Proteinaceous Infectious Particles. Prions are the ones that cause Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy also known as Mad Cow disease. They are harder to eliminate through disinfection and ultraviolet radiation and can even survive action of digestive juices.

Antibiotics and the Possible Harm to Human Body
It is feared that the antibiotic effect on physiological processes in bacteria like protein formation and targeting cell wall and ribosome can also be harmful to human cells. Some studies however showed that antibiotic actions are specifically designed to target bacteria and not human cells. Still, there are possible side effects from antibiotics.

The Fascinating Function of the Immune System
Our immune system consists of community of cells that has a means of memorizing the nature of invasive agent. It is capable of recognizing antigens that can produce antibodies therefore helping the body fight against infections. Factors like stress, deficiency, chemicals and infectious diseases can suppress our immune system.

Control Methods for Pathogens
There are number of methods to eliminate pathogens and these include using drugs or numerous types of antibiotics, disinfecting agents, ultraviolet radiation and even vaccination. Viruses are the most difficult to control as common drugs cannot destroy them.

 Since hypertension in sinoaortic denervated dogs has been reported by many investigators in the past, this study was done in order to verify these reports. The result of the study showed no major amount of hypertension but great variations in arterial blood pressure instead. They also exhibited transient hypertension episodes during postural changes. Thus it was necessary to reevaluate its effects on all important hemodynamic variables. 24-hour recording of pressure and removal of disturbing factors are also necessary.
  
The methodology involved preparation of 12 normal and 15 denervated dogs. Baroreceptor denervation was performed by surgically stripping the nerve and adventitia from the aortic arch and carotid sinus areas. Cervicovagal trunk was reduced by 1.5 cm and medial bundle of right vagus was cut. An electromagnetic flow transducer was also implanted and calibrated in vitro. A chronic indwelling of polyinyl-Tygon catheter was placed in the femoral artery and tunneled to the cephalad position. Plasma renin activity was measured using radioimmunoassay technique. An arterial blood pressure transducer and a Crass polygraph were used to record blood pressure, cardiac output, aortic pulse flow and position of the dog. The heart rate was used using Crass techygraph, while the cardiac output was obtained using pulse logic Biotronex blood flowmeter.
   
The polygraph records were analyzed by a PDP-9 computer. Four separate fiber optic scanning pens were used with three channels of Crass recorders to obtain two identical recordings of pulse and arterial pressure. Cardiac output was also recorded using similar scanning technique.The digitalized information was used to calculate average hourly blood pressure, cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, and heart rate.
   
The 96-minute recording comparison of a normal and baroreceptor denervated dog showed fluctuations in the arterial blood pressure of the denervated dog between 220180 mm Hg and 7545 mm Hg with minimal excitement. This showed the need of new method to quantify arterial blood pressure in denervated dogs. A continuous 24-hour     recordings of all the hemodynamic factors, which illustrates events that most frequently altered the arterial blood pressure were obtained.  These shows large elevations in heart rate, pressure and cardiac output that frequently occurred.
   
The comparison of 24-hour mean arterial blood pressure in normal and denervated dogs showed that the mean arterial blood pressure of a normal dog was distributed around a mean pressure of 98 mm Hg with a range of 75 to 125 mm Hg. On the contrary baroreceptor denervated dogs exhibited a wide range of pressure with a mean of 104 mm Hg. Important features of the composite graphs and tabular data showed a difference of 11.1 mm Hg between normal dogs and denervated dogs, which was quite significant statistically. The same was in the case of systolic and diastolic pressures. Minute to minute fluctuation and average 24-hour deviation was also significantly different. Mean arterial blood pressure was elevated to high levels in denervated dogs many times in a day even because of slight disturbances. There were also hypotensive episodes recorded of very low mean arterial blood pressure which lasted for 15-20 minutes.
   
The pattern of 24-hour heart rate distribution was similar to the pattern of arterial blood pressure. The heart rates of normal dogs varied less than the heart rates of denervated dogs. Normal dogs mean heart rate was 89.0 beatsmin compared to 105.0 beatsmin of denervated dogs. The cardiac output and peripheral resistance was similar in normal and denervated dogs in a 24-hour period, though with a different characteristics on short periods. The denervated dogs exhibit more abrupt changes. This led to the conclusion that the absence of baroreceptor reflexes did not alter the daily variability in cardiac output and total peripheral resistance.
   
Despite the initial rise in mean arterial blood pressure immediately after the surgery it fell after few hours but rose gradually after a week and then did not show further changes in the pattern. In baroreceptor denervated dogs diurnal variation in arterial blood pressure was evident twice a day. On the contrary normal dogs exhibit only a slight decrease in pressure in early morning. The analysis of hemodynamic changes resulting during the postural changes of both normal and denervated dogs showed a rise in pressure in both groups when standing up but a more rapid fall in denervated dogs. Cardiac output and total peripheral resistance was same in both groups but with a rapid decrease in peripheral resistance in denervated dogs. Moreover it took more time for the denervated dogs for their blood pressure to return to pre-standing levels. The average blood volume and plasma electrolytes was nearly the same in both groups. There was no difference in arterial renin activity in both groups.
   
This study led to the conclusion that presence of neurogenic hypertension in baroreceptor denervated dogs is not valid. The mean 24-hour pressure of an undisturbed dog was not far from normal. On the contrary it led to variations in arterial blood pressure. Thus the baroreceptor system does not maintain the arterial blood pressure for prolonged periods. The cardiac output and total peripheral resistance were the least influenced by the baroreceptor system. The study also suggested that the evidence of high blood pressures in previous studies was the result of psychic stimuli resulting from the monitoring techniques used previously. Moreover some denervation techniques also result in prolonged elevation of pressure like to excise the entire area of common carotid bifurcations. Furthermore these dogs show a 24-hour wide arterial blood pressure frequency never observed in normal dogs.
   
Diurnal variation of arterial blood pressure was difficult to explain as it did not associate with daily routines or surrounding noise. Elevations of pressures during sleep might be due to increase in peripheral resistance. There was little difference between the cardiac output and total peripheral resistance between both groups. Moreover the hemodynamic effects of postural changes reflect twice fall in blood pressure in denervated dogs. Denervated dogs unlike their normal fellows were unable to maintain the total peripheral resistance.
   
The overall results obtained from the study led to the conclusion that previously reported hypertension in denervated dogs was a bit exaggerated and baroreceptor system s primary function is to minimize arterial blood pressure variations.

What is learnt from this article
The primarily objective of this study was to verify the previously reported neurogenic hypertension in baroreceptor denervated dogs. The findings of this report clearly states that the previous studies, which proved this phenomenon to be true were not that valid,  but on the contrary highly exaggerated. The study proved that with the help of better technique and computer analysis is was possible to determine that the primary function of baroreceptor system was not to maintain the chronic level of pressure but to minimize systemic arterial blood pressure variations.
   
The study clearly made its point that the reason behind these exaggerated reports regarding hypertension in baroreceptor denervated dogs were primarily because of the methods of monitoring the blood pressure or because of the techniques used to denervate the baroreceptor reflex system, most importantly by excising the entire area of common carotid bifurcations. Since the most prominent difference in the readings were the variations in the 24-hour distribution of mean arterial blood pressure between the two groups it s imminent that the mean arterial blood pressure is the most highly influenced function by the baroreceptor reflex system.

Effective understanding of diseases, their causes, possible prevention and treatment are key elements towards maintain a healthy community.  Notably, the changing consumerism and lifestyle patterns have created a critical impetus towards intensified evaluation of extended effects of diseases causing pathogens.  As Kahn (2005) explains, there is needed greater emphasis on viruses due to their expounded impacts.  It is from this consideration that this paper evaluates Canine Parvovirus (CPV-2) to establish its historical orientation, its morphology, the resulting diseases and mechanisms employed to address it.

History and statistics of the Virus
Canine Parvovirus (CPV-2) is a virus that mostly infects dogs and other animals in the Canidae family.  Though majority of biologists indicate that CPV-2 mutated from the CPV-1 which had been discovered previously in 1967, a second school of thought argue that it could have mutated from an unidentified carnivore (Truyen, 2006).  Unlike the CPV-1 which was not seen to pose a great danger, CPV-2 strain was more aggressive with severe impacts.  Following its discovery in 1968 in the United States, efforts to shield puppies turned out to be highly futile.  As a result, the virus fast spread to other parts of the globe such as Vietnam, Italy, and the larger Asia.  As Kahn (2005) explains, the exposure to different environments culminated to development of a second mutant, CPV-2a which turned out to be even more aggressive and resistant.  Presently, CPV-2a and CPV-2b are the most recurrent strains and depict themselves in cardiac and intestinal infections where the affected animal shows signs of vomiting and diarrhea with stains of blood.  Due to its fast spread, Truyen (2006) explains that the virus has been referred as one of the greatest threats to the canidae family especially the domesticated pets.
   
It is worth noting that there is an acute lack of recent statistics on the trends of CPV-2 in the globe.  However, Miller and Kate (2009) explain that in the domestic setting, it mostly affects puppies within the age of six weeks to six months.  Besides, the virus is very severe and causes death of approximately 80 of affected puppies if untreated.  With effective and timely vaccination, Jim and Mark (2009) report that over 85 of the affected puppies could easily move out of danger.  After the initial infection, the diseases incubation period is between 4-14 days with major symptoms being vomiting and diarrhea.  

Morphology 
CPV-2 as Nancy and Pat (2007) explain has a non-enveloped DNA virus with only a single strand and a diameter of between eighteen to twenty six nm (see diagram 1).  Besides, it assumes an icosahedrol shape that has been engrossed with key caspids (a coating of protein surrounding the DNA).  As Kahn (2005) explains, the casspids form a protective overlapping layer of proteins VP3, VP2 and VP3.  Virologists indicate that this protective layer has been very crucial in the different strands development and mutation by providing a unique reactionary environment for new strands.  Truyen (2006) explains that CPV-2 virus has continued to evolve with latter strains increasingly being dependent on the host and most importantly on the CPV-2 improved ability to bind with its tranferrin receptor.  One peculiar notion of CPV-2 is that it has a high evolution rate which has been correlated to the high nucleotide rate of substitution. While prior studies indicated that CPV2 was common to all canids, the mutant CPV-2a and CPV-2b as Jim and Mark (2009) report have recently been eliminated from feline panleukopemia especially in big cats.  Besides, Jim and Mark (2009) continue to report that recent studies in Vietnam indicate CPV-2 have the ability to undergo small antigenic model shifts to even infect felids.  In cats, CPV-2 has been reported to mutate faster compared to dogs.   

Diagram 1  Canine parvovirus crystallography (Truyen, 2006) 
Infections caused by CPV-2
Intestinal CPV-2  
CPV-2 causes two major infections to the affected animal.  To begin with, the intestinal CPV-2 is reported when the animal is infected via mouth contact either with formites, feces or soil that is infected with CPV-2 viruses (Miller and Kate, 2009).   Miller and Kate (2009) continue to say that the ingested virus moves to the lymphatic tissues of the thorax where it replicates before spreading to the main blood stream.  The fast spreading virus further continues to multiply in the bone marrow, crypts of the intestine and lymph nodes.  The immediate resultant of this multiplication is inherent lymphocytes weakening and crypts destruction in the intestine (Nancy and Pat, 200).   At this stage, most of the bacteria that reside in the intestine get into the blood stream when SIRS (Systemic Inflammation Response Syndrome is reported) is reached.  At advanced stage, SIRS results to other complications like endotaxemia and section of the infected animals intestine may prolapse and the virus appears in the feces when the animal either dies or remains a carrier.     

Cardiac CPV-2
As indicated earlier, after CPV-2 has infected an animal, the subsequent replication leads to the virus spreading through out the body including the reproductive system.  Cardiac CPV-2 therefore is a disease where puppies get the infection mainly in the uterus or about eight weeks after birth (Kahn, 2005).  Unlike the Intestinal CPV-2, cardiac VPV-2 attacks the infected puppies heart muscles before experiencing breathing difficulty that result to death within a short period of time.  In cardiac CPV-2, the virus forms myofibrils where it replicates and spreads to other parts of the body.  As - Kahn (2005) continues to say, cardiac CPV-2 is uncommon mainly because the fact that affected animals often die reducing the possibility of passing the infection to the unborn. 

Infection in the Uterus has at times been considered a separate form of CPV-2 and takes place when an animal is infected by the virus during pregnancy.  Though most animals develop immunity, the virus could have passed and reached the fetus.  In such cases the puppies are born with key neurological abnormalities (Kahn, 2005). 

Treatment of the disease
Hospitalization and use of drugs 
According to Jim and Mark (2009), the treatment of the disease is largely dependent on the ability to detect it early and the actual thoroughness of employed treatment.  Notably, hospitalization is often required for animals whose infection is noted at progressive stages.  Therefore, as Miller and Kate (2009) explain, CPV-2 treatment involves administration of colloids antiemetics such as dolasetron and injections with antibiotics such as enrofloxacin.  While the antibiotics are used to suppress the virus replication in the body, analgesic treatment greatly helps to reduce the intestinal discomfort resulting from increased diarrhea. 

Maintaining the body fluids
In addition to that, Truyen (2006) explains that fluids to counteract dehydration must further be balanced with their overall body mass lost during the infection.  At this point, veterinary specialists explain that in severe cases, the fluids should be provided using a drip to facilitate direct absorption into the animal circulatory system.  In addition, Jim and Mark (2009) argue that stress imposed by resulting disease stress often lowers the puppies blood sugar and should be counteracted by adding dextrose to the drip. 

Blood plasma transfer
According to Truyen (2006), the suffering animal could also receive blood plasma transfusion taken from another animal that had successfully survived CPV-2 to boost their immunity against the virus.  This is perhaps one of the best methods that are developing for treatment of the disease.  However, it is very costly and many people have often preferred the less costly methods for their animals. 

Conventional treatment
Currently, use of unconventional treatment like oseltamivir as Jim and Mark (2009) explain, is fast becoming popular among many vets in that it greatly reduces the overall severity of the disease and period required for hospitalization.   While the method is indicated to be in its advanced research stages, analysts indicate that this drug has the ability to limit CPV-2 from invading the intestinal crypt cells and further inhibiting toxin production and colonization of intestinal bacteria. 

While veterinary authorities have remained skeptical about use of colloidal silver in addressing the virus related infections due for lack of clear documented efficiency , Kahn (2005) claims that that using this drug has the ability to raise the current survival rate of 80 for all the treated cases to 90.  It is critical that feeding is restarted gradually as the intestine regains its normal functioning after suppressing the virus to facilitate greater development of the body immunity (Miller and Kate, 2009)
Prevention

Vaccination
Prevention has been considered as one of the most effective method of controlling the occurrence of CPV-2 and its resilience in any region.  Immediately after the first strain of the disease was discovered, veterinaries managed to contain it through vaccination.  Vaccination as Yuyuan (2008) explains facilitates the ability of the risk animals to develop resistant immunity towards the causative virus.  Puppies should be vaccinated at the earliest possible instance to boost their mothers derived immunity.  In the United States, animals at risk are vaccinated every year to prevent the resilience of this highly contagious disease.  However, veterinaries further advice that it is indeed very critical that effective observation is also maintained to cite possible symptoms of the disease and therefore inform a medical specialist for assessment of possible resistance by the virus (Nancy and Pat, 2007).

Decontamination
Earlier on, it became evident that the immediate surrounding of at risk animals is the main source of the virus for infection to occur.  As a result, all equipments used by the animal and its area of the residence should be kept clean and regularly decontaminated to reduce the chances of coming into contact with the virus (Jim and Mark, 2009). 
Isolation.

After an animal is noted to have the symptoms of the disease, it is crucial to isolate it and therefore reduce the chances of infecting others.  Particularly, Miller and Kate (2009) indicate that special observation should always be provided and infected animals treated before returning them to live together with others. 

It is from the above discussion that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement effective understanding of diseases, their causes, possible prevention and treatment are key elements towards maintain a healthy community.  CPV-2came out as a highly dangerous disease and that is fast undergoing key mutation to develop new strains.  It is therefore critical that people emphasize on preventing the disease while seeking early treatment for the affected animals.

The purpose of the study was to investigate whether ducks exhibit a range of bathing behaviors when exposed to different water resource like baths, troughs, showers and nipples. The survey also seeks to determine wheteher any synchrony of behavior exists in duck while at a water resource.

The survey involved a total of 96 Cherry Valley Pekin stain ducks. Each pen had different treatment types in terms of the bathing resource. In the pen, the ducklings were fed on chicken finished pellets for 49 days and each treatment was replicated. Data collection started at day 47 using videos which were later analyzed for the bathing behavior. Software was used to code the behavior of the ducks during the bathing bouts where a bout was defined to be the period between when a duck approaches the resource and engage in a behavior that is part of the bathing sequence. If more than one duck was available at the resource, the bouts were divided into quadrants (Waitt, Jones, Dawkins, 2009).
   
The bouts were further identified and analyzed for any synchrony in bathing behavior. Also, the amount of time that the ducks spent at the water resource was recorded. The bathing behaviors were analyzed using the statistical method where the behaviors in consideration were wet preen, head roll, wing- rub, head toss, scratch, shake body, wing flap and dive. Synchrony in the bathing behavior was analyzed using ANOVA.
The results form the survey indicated that the ducks preferred to rest under the showers for a long period of time. Time spent at the nipple was minimal. There was no significant difference in the time spent in either the bath or the shower. While at the nipple, the ducks engaged in head dipping, diving, wet preening with some incidences of head toss and wing flap. At the shower, the ducks were dabbling while they spent some time in the trough dipping their heads and rubbing the wings. Head tosses and diving were common when the ducks were at the troughs and shower.
   
In the aspect of synchrony, there was no difference in the proportion of time spent at a water resource when a maximum of 3 ducks were present in the resource. When 4 ducks were present, significant time was spent in the shower with minimal time being spent in the nipple. Intermediate time was spent at the bath and the trough. The ducks had the tendency to bath as a group rather than individually depending on the kind of water resource (Waitt, Jones, Dawkins, 2009).  With exception of the nipple, the ducks used other resources as a group.
   
From the results, it was evident there were variations in the behavioral patterns shown at the water resource. This was attributable to the functional differences associated with the water resource. For instance, minimal time was spent at the nipple because there was no sufficient water to wet the body or do some diving. Also, the nipple could only be accessed singly but the ducks prefer to bath as a group. Of importance to the ducks was the frequent contact with water because some would even prefer to rest in the troughs when permitted to do so.
  
 In evaluating synchrony, the ducks showed a greater degree of social behavior when in the shower than in the bath. The time spent at a resource decreased with an increase in the number of ducks at a water resource. This indicated that, though the ducks are social animals they are not able to bath synchronously (Waitt, Jones, Dawkins, 2009).
   
In conclusion, the bathing behavior of the ducks relies mainly on the type of water resource. This is evident in the variations which are present in the usage of showers, troughs and nipples. Moreover, it was evident that, a water resource needs to allow for social bathing but it is not necessary to account for the synchrony while building a water resource for the ducks.

In this paper the phylogeographical distribution of a marine gastropod snail, the crown conch Melongena is investigated. The crown conch Melongena is a large marine mollusk that belongs to the family Melongenidae, traditionally together with the busycon whelks. This gastropod snail has a variety of different shapes but is commonly characterized by direct-developing, lecithrotropic larvae. The Melongena is endemic to tropical Americas with some exceptions for the Pacific, since it dominantly lives in intertidial zones. In the present paper its phylogeny and geographical disparity is investigated with a representative specimen genomic analysis and the construction of computer-aided phylogenetic trees. Specimens that were analyzed in the present paper were collected from Intertidal Florida and eastern Alabama, USA, Mexico and Panama, and compared to several members of the same subfamily from Taiwan and Singapore, as well as several outgroups, one specimen from the subfamily Busyconiae (whelk) and one from Fasciolaria hunteria.

On the topic of the geographical distribution of specific marine taxa such as Melongena, previous studies have dictated that dispersal ability is a function dependent of larvae duration. Moreover, gene studies have documented that there exist no barriers in the possibility of gene flow from one marine environment to the other, where taxa can disperse in their planktonic forms. The observation however, that several species are distributed in areas far more distanced than the potential distance covered in planktonic form, or that non-planktonic taxa are more dispersed than neighbourly planktonic ones, has raised confusion to the viewing of geographical dispersal in marine ecosystems.

In previous studies, a lot of systematic confusion has accumulated on gastropods such as Melongena, due to numerous and differentiating morphology descriptions at the shell level. Even more, genetics and other-than-shell morphology studies have resulted in rearrangements at the familial taxonomy and even in the description of novel, cryptic species. This background has led the authors to the study to formulate and test three different hypotheses concerning the taxonomy and dispersal of the Melongena spp, and particularly five taxa belonging in the Melongenidae family, referred to hereafter as the corona complex.

The three main purposes of the study were
a) To evaluate interspecies relationships and validate the current taxonomy of the corona complex, based on shell characteristics, shedding light to the ongoing confusion and debate

b) To evaluate the geographical distribution of these species according to their phylogeny (i.e. establish genetic similarity to other symbiotic marine taxa) ,and

c) To validate previous research outcomes that have just placed (2004-5) a previous subfamily of the Busyconinae, in a different family whatsoever (also known as the paraphyletic hypothesis).
The authors in their methodology collected 48 adult specimens ,representatives of all currently recognized species in the genus Melongena from Intertidal Florida and eastern Alabama, USA, Mexico and Panama and 5 more out-group specimens (see above) from Taiwan and Singapore. All snails were anesthetized and deep-frozen and genomic DNA was collected with currently approved in-house or commercial techniques for such a collection (a modified non-boiling chelex-based protocol, an NaCl extraction protocol and the Promega Wizard Genomic DNA Purification Kit (Madison, WI, USA) for samples that were recalcitrant to other methods. A region of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mitochondrial DNA) or COI, and ribosomal 16S DNA were all amplified and sequenced from the specimens, separately in two different experiments. A computer program using maximum likelihood analysis under a model of evolution (PAUP) constructed phylogenetic trees for the specimens for both COI and 16S r-DNA of the samples in question.

The results of this study suggest that
a) In the authors own words   our data do not indicate population subdivision, and the low sequence divergence levels observed, indicate that the corona complex is probably a single species. This means that the results of the genomic analyses in the species level (COI and 16S DNA) were extremely low in sequence variability, showing that the possibility that the specimens tested would belong in a different species is also extremely low.

b) That the Busyconinae are rightfully categorized in another subfamily than the Melongena., since they are phylogenetically less similar. In particular, the construction of the phylogenetic trees, with the aid of the computer program, created a much higher likelihood that these two species belong in a different family in the process of evolutionary change, rather than in the same, as had been traditionally thought until 2004.
It is argued in great detail that larval dispersal can play an important role in population structure in marine mollusks. From the background material provided for this study, a lot of confusion has made it hard to understand the mechanisms of geographical preference. The authors suggest that in light of their findings of genetic simplicity rather than differentiation between the corona complex snails, researchers of marine geodiversity should focus on life-history traits, ecological factors or even paleogeographical history when researching the characteristics of phylogeography for the marine species.

Authors are quite informative on the levels of divergence found in Melongena spp. andor related genera of snails, the latter being approximately five to 20 times more divergent than species in the corona complex. The present study supports the designation of only four extant species within the genus M. corona, M. patula, M. melongena and M. bispinosa. Data suggests that M. bispinosa and M. corona are the two most divergent species within the genus, and the authors state that M.bispinosa should no longer be called M.corona bispinosa. Moreover, the high diversity found in the COI analysis of species other than the corona complex, suggests that the corona complex are lower taxonomically (thus older evolution wise) than the other Melongena spp.

This was reflected by the nuclear DNA as well, where both nuclear histone H3 and 28S ribosomal DNA sequences were found to be monomorphic for the corona complex species alone.
An important finding for this particular paper was also the confirmation with genomic phylogenetic analysis  that Busyconidae are a distinct family than the Melongena, a finding that adds greatly to the research on marine species phylogeny. In detail, Busyconinae is placed as the sister group to Buccinidae with high confidence, in respect to the analysis of 16S DNA sequences and COI.

Interpreting the above study, one might say that this is a very well written paper with a particular interest in phylogenomics and taxonomy of the species. However this is not the only importance one sees when seeing the article in a larger context. When a species, that has a limited biogeographical disparity ,as documented by biogeographical analysis historically, is not genetically variable nor does it have a large amount of speciation between its members, this genetic simplicity is a finding that is not only proof of the given ecological confinement but also proof of a slower evolution. This paper also clearly adds a controversy to research oriented at larva duration-dependent disparity analysis. This is also because the corona complex organisms are characterized by extremely low vagility per se.

An explanation for the extreme genetic simplicity would be that the corona complex suffered a localized extirpation followed by recolonization some time after the mid- to Late-Pleistocene. Research on this topic should become wider to include other factors that play a major role in this geographical preference, such as more traditional aspects of ecology, adaptation and migration.

The findings of the present paper were analyzed in a simple manner throughout the manuscript with illustrative graphics and in detail concerning the methodology used. A second critical analysis of the science used in this experiment would argue that given the particular task, the authors had to carry a more precise genetic analysis. That is because 16S DNA and COI, are somewhat wide targets to the species level, and are not sufficiently discriminatory (i.e. they are frequently highly preserved) to observe diversity and or genetic polymorphism a micro satellite loci sequencing for example, would offer certainty and speciation to the taxonomical findings (subtler intraspecific genetic variance) and would allow for analysis in population subdivision between areas of habitat. And controversially, the authors do not provide a paragraph that would constitute their choice of this particular genetic analysis as sufficient i.e. stating the methods of analyses characteristics and specificity, nor do they reference previous literature that might have rendered this type of analysis as the gold standard. Moreover, they use phylogeny limits that run back to 1985. To add to these interpretations, the authors admit in their discussion section that the existence of a universal highly conserved COI gene may explain the lack of divergence in corona complex taxa, as has been found for other species.
In total however, the authors are aware and sincere about their limitations and have outlined their contribution to the topic thoroughly and with a sufficient analysis of all pertinent research in the subject.

RELEVANT CHAPTERS
Evolutionary trees the authors try to elucidate the complexity or absence of it, in a marine species, using highly conserved genetic elements, and place one subset of the studied population in a lower evolutionary level than the others. Moreover, they provide evidence of a taxonomical controversy, that allows for a reclassification of whelks in a different family than Melongena.

Migration, drift and nonrandom mating the question of marine migration and the planktonic-form drift constitutes a major argument for this article, where the biogeography of an organism is studied for its selective environmental disparity. Drift is being questioned and no data is found to substantiate the mechanisms of geodisparity in this organism.

Evolutionary analysis of form and function genetic analysis proves low divergence between a selected species that is traditionally confused in its taxonomy due to variability in shell forms.
Phylogenomics and adaptation Phylogenomic methods are being used in this paper to elucidate the place of several subspecies of the Melongena spp. to different subgroups.

Mutation and genetic variation  The methods employed by this study do not allow for the identification of mutation, and genetic variation is found to be low within a species.
Evolution at multiple loci  This is also a limitation of this study that is not designed to provide with such information for the organism selected.

Life history characters  Although geographical disparity is investigated and mapped, there is no explanation to the theory of this organisms particular selection of habitat, although suggestions regarding life history events are hypothesized to play a major role.

The body is composed of different organ systems which include cardiovascular system, digestive or gastrointestinal system, musculoskeletal system, nervous system, respiratory system, urinary system and reproductive system among others. Each of this system has their own functions. For example, the function of the cardiovascular system is to pump and circulate the blood all over the body. The organs which compose this system are the heart and the blood vessels specifically the arteries, veins and capillaries. On the other hand, the function of the digestive or gastrointestinal system is to receive and digest and excrete waste. This system includes the mouth esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, rectum, anus, liver, gallbladder, pancreas and appendix.
   
Although each of the organ systems in the body has their own specific functions, they all work together and are dependent on one another.  Take the skeletal system for example. This system provides the framework for the body and protects our internal organs. Through this system, we are able to move and it also stores minerals for the bodys future use such as calcium and phosphorus.
   
The skeletal system interacts with the nervous system. First, the mineral calcium which is stored in the bones is vital in the functioning of the nervous system. The skull and the vertebrae which are part of the skeletal system protect organs of the nervous system, the brain and the spinal cord. Furthermore, the signals about body positioning are sent to the brain by the sensory receptors in joints between the bones. On the other hand, the nervous system regulates body positioning by controlling the muscles.
According to Beers (2006) communication between organs and organ systems is vital. It is through communication that body adjusts to the each organs function according to the needs of the whole body. As an example, our heart must know when the body is resting so that it can slow down and when organs need more blood so that it can speed up.

A wound is a break or tissue injury that occurs on the skin. Wounds can be of different types depending on the cause of the injury. The consequential healing and repair of a wound is a stage wise process which progresses from the moment of inflammation through to the proliferation of cell network, remodeling and finally the formation of an epithelial layer. During a surgical incision, even though there occurs a damage and death of some of epithelial and connective tissue cells, a clean an uninfected wound develops which responds well to healing process. The clotted blood that covers the wound contains fibrin and blood cells which are kept on constant supply of neutrophils in the first days by the body (Braz, Loss, Japiassu, n.d.). Different changes occur on the surface of the wound and within a weeks time, there is a massive creation of connective tissues with disappearance of inflammatory facial appearance on the wound. By the end of four weeks, an intact epithelial layer covers what was once a wound which by then, appears as a scar with a new cellular tissue net without any inflammation.
   
In other cases where the wound results in substantial amount of loss of cell tissues, normal healing process is hampered. A more complex process of inflammation and cellular granulation occurs (Blum, 2003). However, the new configuration of skin that formes does not correspond to the original skin texture. This condition is known as wound contraction.
   
A good nutrition is of vital significance in enhancing wound healing process. Sufficient supply of protein especially ascorbic acid helps in collagen synthesis. Other factors such as patients age, and area infections can influence the rate of healing process. Abnormal healing processes results in irregularity in growth of tissue such as Keloid, however, the actual causes of such abnormalities remains unknown (Godrick, 1993).

Prostate gland is an exocrine gland (Thomas etal, 1977, pg 945) that is found below the urethra on the pelvic musculofascial floor and forms part of the male reproductive system. It is a walnut-size organ made up of non striped muscles and fibrous tissue called the prostatic capsule. The gland is also made up of circular fibres which are coated with fats. It is supplied by blood vessels that form part of the internal pudendal inferior vesicle and the middle haemorrhoidal- Gray Anatomy, (2009). The prostate gland is separated from the rectum by a layer of Dennonvilliers fascia and is fixed   to the pubic bone by the puboprostatic ligaments (Dixon et al., 1999).  

Prostate gland helps in the movement of sperms by providing the sperm with an alkaline medium for motility. During ejaculation this gland secretes secretions through contraction and relaxation of its muscles. The secretions contain Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) which is alkaline in nature. This provides an alkaline environment in the urethra to protect the sperms from the acidity of the urethra created by urine which is acidic. The Prostate Specific Antigen alkaline pH also protects the sperms from the acidity of the vagina. The contraction and relaxation of the prostate muscles also helps in the propulsion of semen (prostate gland secretions and sperm) and therefore aiding the movement of sperms and increases the chances of fusion of the sperm and the ovum. Prostate gland also has valves, one at the neck of the bladder extending halfway down into the prostatic urethra called the internal sphincter and another valve in the membranous urethra extending up through the apex of the prostate gland called the prostatic apex. These valves control the flow of urine during ejaculation by blocking the urinary bladder and hence sperm do not mix with urine during ejaculation.

This important reproductive gland can experience some disorders, the most common ones being the Prostatic Cancer and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH). Prostatic Cancer is a condition that starts as a small growth composed of abnormal cells which increase in size with time and can spread to other nearby tissues. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) on the other hand is a condition in which the cells of the prostate gland grow continuously leading to an increase in the size of the prostate gland. The cells in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia however are normal cells and cannot infiltrate nearby tissues. These two conditions Prostatic Cancer and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, usually result in the obstruction of the urethra and have the same symptoms. As the prostate gland increases in size, it squeezes the urethra. This ideology can be used to give possible explanation of why the two prostate conditions are very common with men between the age 40 and 60 years. Again inflammation of the prostate gland can be due to increased level of Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) and Luteinising Hormone (LH). As men grow old, their prostate glands keep on growing continuously. The level of testosterone lowers as LH and DHT levels rises age of 40 and 60 years and the result is an inflamed prostate gland. Since urine is voided from the bladder through the urethra, the pressure from the enlarged prostate may affect bladder control.

Prostate cancer is also attributed to elevated levels of Prostate Specific Antigen in the semen and this usually provides the basis of Prostate cancer diagnosis.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) in particular is hyperplastic since results from a response to specific stimulus. There are two types of hyperplasia namely pathological hyperplasia (or neoplastic) and physiological hyperplasia. Physiological or normal hyperplasia is a type of hyperplasia that occurs in response to externalenvironmental factors and the hyperplastic growth remains subject to normal regulatory control mechanisms. Pathological hyperplasia on the other hand is a type of hyperplasia which is intrinsic in nature. It can be defined as a form of hyperplasia that is caused by intrinsic hereditary abnormality of the affected cells, which can be modified by a biophysicochemical disequilibrium affecting the physical elements and factors or the chemical ones (Donato, 2009). Here the genetically abnormal cells proliferate in a non-physiological manner that is unresponsive to normal stimuli. Since prostatic cancer is intrinsic is nature it can therefore be classified under pathological hyperplasia. Hyperplasia may be harmless and can occur on a particular tissue. In Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia BPH also called prostate enlargement, the hyperplasia occurs in the prostate gland hence the name prostatic. Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia is benign since the resultant cells are some-what differentiated from the original cells but are not different in behavior and form from the original prostatic cells

Patients with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia urinate frequently, experience pain at the start of urination process, feel some discomfort while ejaculating, feel frequent urge to urinate at night a condition called Nocturia ( Keir et al., 2003, pg 495), suffer from erectile dysfunction, pain in the prostate area and always feel an urge to void even when the bladder is not full. These among others serve as the symptoms for Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and prostatic cancer and concur with some of the symptoms that the patient in this case studies shown. These with time can progress into serious conditions such as blockage of the urethra, bladder stones or can cause damage to the kidney (renal failure) some of these are fatal. (Robert et al., 2004, pg 495)

There are various therapeutic methods that can be used to determine the presence of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia or prostatic cancer. Mostly these tests are aimed at distinguishing anatomic etiologies of the prostatic condition from the functional causes. The treatment options for BPH and prostrate cancer range from medication treatments, surgical treatments, nonsurgical treatment, behavioral therapy and thermotherapy. Medication treatment commonly prescribed by doctors is the use of finasteride  an inhibitor of 5- reductase enzyme from the producing Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)  (Robert et al., 2004, pg 945). Due to the fall in the level of DHT the prostate gland shrinks. Market names for finasteride include Finast, Finara, Appecia and Finprose among others. Alpha blockers which ease the flow of urine can be prescribed to patients who experience urinal pains while voiding. Anticholinergics can also be used to increase the bladders capacity hence controlling Nocturia. Antiinflammatory painkillers can also be given to reduce the inflammation of the of the swollen prostate gland thereby relieving some of the urinary symptoms
Behavioral therapy can be used to control the symptoms are proper diet, regular exercises, reducing the amount of fluid intake in the evening regular urinating cycles (Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Mayoclinic, 2009) thermotherapy includes treatment options that involve the use of heat to destroy excess cells in the prostate gland. The types are Microwave therapy, electro vaporization, laser therapy, radiofrequency therapy.

Microwave therapy involves use of heat in form of microwaves to destroy the growths on the surface on the prostrate gland. It advantage is that it does not cause impotency or even interfere with ejaculation. Electrovaporization therapy uses electric current to cut and vaporize the excess prostate cells. Laser therapy uses lasers to cut and seal the excess cells that on the prostate gland. The sealing minimizes bleeding and this method also does no cause impotence. Radiofrequency therapy on the other hand uses radio frequency to destroy prostate tissues that might be blocking the urethra. This method can lead to ejaculation problem
Nonsurgical methods that can be used include PSA test, Ultrasonography, CT scan and Digital rectal exam.
PSA test is the most widely used method of identifying BPH and Prostate cancer. Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is an antigen that is found in semen secreted by cells in the prostate gland, level. It is found that in prostate cancer patients produce large amounts level of PSA in their seminal fluids. Determination of the amount of PSA in semen can be used to tell whether a patient has prostate cancer or not. However PSA test can at times produce false results. A false positive result occurs when PSA is in high level in the semen while in actual sense the patient is not suffering from Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia or Prostatic cancer. A false negative result can also be obtained when the level of PSA is normal though the patient is suffering from cancer or Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia.

Another nonsurgical method that can be used is Ultrasonography, Computerized Axial Tomography (CT scan) which is quite better than Ultrasonography as it can be used for diagnosis of the obstruction up to the ureteric level. Intravenous pyelography and Invasive pyelography both of which provide detailed morphology of the obstruction only that they can not be used to differentiate urinary dilation resulting from functional obstruction from that resulting from anatomical obstruction, can be used to provide information about the obstruction of the urethra.

Digital rectal exam is test where the doctor inserts a gloved finger into the rectum and feels the part of the prostate next to rectum (Kristi  Pharm, 2009). This can be used to feel the size of the prostate gland. Rectal ultrasound is also another test that can be used to detect prostate cancer. The test uses sound waves to detect the presence of prostate cancer. The sound waves on heating the surface of the prostate gland are echoed back in patterns that can be shown on the screen. Urine flow study is also among the numerous methods that can be used to detect the presence of BPH in patients. The doctor instructs the patient to urinate in a special device that measures the speed of flow of urine. A slow flow suggests the presence of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. Apart from Urine flow studies, cystoscopy can also be used. In this method the doctor inserts a cystoscope through the opening of the urethra. With this device the doctor can see the size of the prostate gland thereby seeing if there is any obstruction of the urethra. Brachytherapy which employs the use of small radioactive seeds of titanium pellets containing radioactive Iodine-125 which are inserted into the prostate gland is another nonsurgical method that can be used

Surgical solutions can too be given to patients with BPH and prostate cancer. These methods are usually suggested when the level of growths is beyond control by any of the methods discussed above. Prostatectomy the main surgical procedure mostly used incase of severe growth of the prostate tissue or if the patient has developed kidney stones. Prostatectomy involves permanent removal of prostate gland. An incision is made above the pubic bone below the umbilicus then the prostate gland is removed. This usually results in impotence. This is mostly done to patients with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. (Keir et al., 2003, pg 495). Robotic Laparoscopic Radical Prostatectomy (for instance the da Vinci surgical program)  a computer based prostatectomy, Retropubic Prostatectomy and Perineal prostatectomy are some of the various methods of prostatectomy that can be carried out on a patient in the case of severe prostate cancer Transurethral Surgery (also called Transurethral Needle Ablation, TUNA- mrisusa.com) is also among the recommended surgical methods that can be undertaken.

It is important to note that prostate cancer is curable even though it cannot be prevented. Prostate cancer can spread (metastasizes) to other tissues of the body near or relatively far from the prostate gland like the lymph nodes liver and lungs and therefore deciding to go for prostate cancer testing and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BHP) biopsy is the first step towards ensuring the cancer does not spread to other tissues close to the prostate gland. As a control measure young adults at the age of 40 should go for check ups for diagnosis. Those diagnosed with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia or prostate cancer should work closely with their heath care professionals to develop appropriate workable plans that they can use to mange their conditions.